vocal music constitutes the majority of remaining preserved antique music
antique vocal music is mostly produced by elite and literate classes in antique society
opinions on singing reflected cultural changes
ancient Greece stressed vocal music over instrumental due to ethos
middle age Christian conflict over vocal sensuality
16thc significance in Italy for grace, nobility, and cosmic link/harmony
ancient Near East (Babylonia, Mesopotamia, regions between Mediterranean and Persian Gulf) were similar to modern music: wedding songs, funeral dirges, military marches, work songs, nursery songs, dance music, tavern songs, banquet music, devotion/ceremony music, stories/hymns
Plato: ideal state is founded on suitable, select music
Timotheus with four additional strings alarmed citizens/law
“lawlessness in art → anarchy in society”
Greek musical thought transferred via Boethius west; most revered authority in music
rule of Saint Benedict preserved classical learning and spread Latin civilization → literate Gregorian chant formed
Carolingian rulers in the 8th century → no secular religious separation
→ Charlemagne crowned by pope of Western Roman Empire in Rome
Roman chant was imported from Italy across the Alps through the empire alongside Roman art, architecture, manuscript
Gregorian chant was “imposed” on Christian liturgy and specifically preserved
notation, polyphony, etc. originated in church music; most were trained via Church-led schools
notation in 9thc; developments in church increased accuracy of notation
three successors to the Roman Empire
Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor and SE Europe — direct successor
Arab — strongest and most vibrant: modern Pakistan thru SWANA + Spain
extensions of Greek philosophy and science
fostering trade/industry
contributions to medicine, chemistry, technology, mathematics
patronage for the arts
western Europe — weakest, poorest, most fragmented
Charlemagne
Holy Roman emperor
promotion of learning/art; improved education
sponsorships; court centers for culture and intellect
modern nations emerged in west Europe following death of Charlemagne’s son, Louis I the Pious
west: France + noble regions
east: German → Holy Roman Empire
included Netherlands and north Italy
regional nobility competed via musical arts, fueling development from 9c – 19c
centralized kingdom: England
followed Noram Conquest
fragmented Italy and Spain over rulers (inc. pope) and Christian v Muslim territories
Crusades
prosperity and scholarship of tremendous arts advancements
11-13c: cathedrals and abbeys (monastic churches) in the Romanesque style: frescoes, sculptures
12c: Gothic architecture; soaring, large buildings/architecture
paralleled polyphony in the Notre Dame in Paris; 13c
1200: laymen independent schools; growth of secular culture and popular literacy
universities formed in Bologna, Paris, Oxford → liberal arts, theology, law, medicine
Aristotle study as books were translated, though banned on natural science in Paris’
Scholasticism critical thinking: reconciled theology with philosophy
vernacular language production of knighthood and chivalry literature; courtly love
poetry was sung; a monophonic repertoire for medieval song
14thc decline via famine, war, plague, scandals/power struggles
100y war
spurred advances in science and technology
realism or imagination of greater realism incorporated into art
preoccupation with structure and pleasure in genres
courtly love extended to polyphonic realm
elaborate textures and rhythmic complications implied ostentatious Avignon pleasures
polyphonic church music flourished in cathedrals, kingdom courts, etc.
antiquity music
Western music developed through Near East and Mediterranean civilizations
only ~45 Greek songs and hymns survived
Greco-Roman musical heritage transmitted via images and descriptions in other arts: antique painting/sculpture artifacts
commonalities between Greek music and Western music
used in religion, entertainment, and dramatic accompaniment
Greek music theory, esp. pitch. passed onto Romans in 1-2c
expectation to be educated in language and music
Nero, other emperors
incomplete transference via church father and scholar writing/preservation/study
spread from Jerusalem → Asia Minor → Africa and Europe while collecting elements from Mediterranean region
standardization increased as prestige declined; authority of Rome regarding faith and doctrine
regulation and standardization of liturgy and repertoire of Gregorian chant
greek music
divine origin of music; gods and demigods invented it
healed sickness, purified soul, worked miracles
connection to Hebrew Scriptures’ portrayal of music
surviving examples mostly derived from late periods
Epitaph of Sekilos: 1CE on a tombstone
scolion made by Sekilos on a tombstone
close connection to theory and practice
monophonic with instrumental embellishments → heterophonic
mostly improvised; linked to poetry sound and meter
no evidence of continuity between Greek and early Christian musical practice besides vague minor similarities; compare to strong evidence of influence via philosophy and theory
Plato: melos was made of speech, rhythm, and “harmony”
lyric: poetry sung to a lyre
tragedy: ode → art of singing
hymn, etc: musical terms
contours of melody matched the changing inflections of the words
music influenced ethos: ethical character
Pythagorean view influenced: human soul was kept composite/harmonmic via numerical relationships, including music and harmonia comparison
theory of imitation: Aristotle; music affects behavior and imitates passion of the soul, so it can form a habitual behavior
avoid melodies expressing softness and indolence and instead listen to melodies that imitate courage and stronger virtues
gymnastics and music
Plato use of two modes: Dorian and Phrygian; not other modes
deplored current styles that used too many notes, complex scales, and incompatible combinations; deplored changing musical conventions
Mixolydian: mournful and restrained
harmoniai had differences
Dorian: composure, midway state
Phyrgian: men divinely suffused
Aristotle:
music can be used for amusement and intellect and education
however, music is powerful enough to arouse and relieve given emotions in a person (pity and fear) through catharsis
ancient Greek musical thought
Pythagoras
rhythms, poetic meter, etc. inseparable from numbers
octave, fifth, and fourth were consonances generated by simple numeric ratios
Aristides Quintilianus
pitches and numerical relationships, systematic descriptions of musical elements and patterns in composition
led to developments towards notes, intervals, scales, modes
Aristoxenus, 320 BCE Harmonic Elements
Cleonides
recognition of consonants and the tetrachord
four notes that lasted a fourth interval
three genera of tetrachord: diatonic, chromatic, enharmonic; wide variation of expression and nuance
enharmonic: smaller than semitone intervals
harmonia: the unification of parts into an orderly whole
harmonics: study and discipline of ppitch
numerical proportions underlie systems of musical intervals and heavenly bodies; modes/notes corresponded to planets, distances, and movement
Plato: “the music of the spheres” ; unheard music produced by harmonious relationships among planets while revolving
later: Middle Ages defined music as discipline which deals with numbers as related to sound; proportion and number were connected to theological understanding
learning that led to the contemplation of philosophy
place of honor alongside astronomy; explained observations of the senses, things known through speculation, and things too divine to be known (sound, movement of heavenly bodies, mysteries of human soul)
persisted through Renaissance into modern era influencing astronomers, physicians, architects, poets
ties to astrology
Venus and Mercury hold sway for musical attributes of humans in astrological symbolism; musical instruments depicted in medieval/Renaissance work
roman music
200 bce – 500 ce
greek island → roman province in 146 bce
lyric poetry was sung
music incorporated into public religious, military ceremonies, theatre and entertainment, education
imported Greek culture into Rome; virtuosos, large choruses and orchestras, grand music festivals/competition
economic decline and lack of production countered any importance on European developments
splintered into fragments
early Christian Church
grew during decline of Roman Empire
civilizing and unifying peoples; writing in Greek and Latin on the power of music to inspire divine thoughts and influence imitation in character
establishment of the papacy’s strength
majority believed music was not enjoyed just for sounds; platonic principle that beautiful things exist to remind of divine beauty
some believed pagan arts were allowed but concerned over pleasure in listening; Augustine
ancient theory and philosophy following invasion and collapse of Roman Empire was transmitted to West during early Christian era: Martianus Capella and Boethius
The Marriage of Mercury and Philology
seven liberal arts: grammar, dialectic/logic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, harmonics/music
first three: trivium; last four: quadrivium: verbal arts and mathematical disciplines
music numeric relationships explained the universe and cosmic harmony
Boethius
480-524 ca
De institutione musica: Fundamentals of Music
compiled from Nicomachus treatise and Ptolemy’s Harmonics
based on statements in Greek mathematics and music theory
three types: musica mundana, musica huymana, musica instrumentalis
mundana: cosmic music; inaudible numeric relationships of cosmic harmony, planetary movement, seasons, combining elements
humana: harmonizing and unifying the body and soul
instrumentalis: audible music; exemplifies same principles of order as the other types of music due to numerical ratios
music had an important place in the education of the young: both in its own merit and as an introduction to advanced philosophical studies
instrumentalis was the third and lowest category; music was primarily seen as a science and examining the diversity in sounds through the reason and senses, less as a practice
a true musician is a theorist and critic who could use reason
early church practice (2-3c): music was the servant of religion; not cultivated for enjoyment or public spectacles
incorporate facets of Greek music and other cultures on the border of the Mediterranean Sea
wanted to wean music and converts away from pagan past; 1000+ years of Christian music composed of unaccompanied singing
Christian observances derived from Jewish traditions
Scripture chant, psalm singing, praise poems in Old Testament Book of Psalms
parallels between Jewish temple service and Christian Mass through sacrifice of burnt offerings and metaphorical bread and wine
vocal music used as worship; banned after destruction of second temple in 70ce for mourning
Last Supper in Mass; festive Jewish Passover Seder → psalm-singing
singing psalms on certain days: central element in Christian observances
absorbed other influences: Jerusalem, Asia Minor, North Africa, Europe
Syrian churches and monasteries: psalmsinging and strophic devotional songs/hymns
singing of devotional songs: earliest recorded musical activity of Jesus and followers
psalms and praise traveled via Syria → Asia Minor Byzantium → Italy Milan → other Western centers
395 CE division into East/West empires (Byzantium/Rome) → East/West church
West → Roman Catholic Church + pope bishop of Rome
diffusion of Latin liturgy and music: 5th and 6th centuries
texts were preserved; melodies changed
large independence across local churches; different reception of Roman heritage/origin including Latin liturgies
different melodies (chants) in modern Italy, France, and Germany btwn 5-8c; chant dialects
Gaul (modern France) → Gallican chant
southern Italy → Beneventan
Rome → Old Roman
Spain → Visigothic/Mozarabic
Milanic area → Ambrosian
most were absorbed into uniform Romanized practice between 13th to 16thc; Roman Catholic church central authority
preserved chant through Frankish monk and nun preservation (modern-day Switzerland, France, western Germany) via song practice and manuscript notation
melodies were preserved as Gregorian chant
Byzantium (Constantinople, Istanbul); Europe–Asia Minor crossroad; capital of E.E. for 1000+ years until 1452 invasion by Turks; cultural center on northern rim of Mediterranean Sea
blend of Western, African, Eastern civilizations
Byzantine church → Orthodox churches
Greek rites → north Slavic cultures; Russian and Slavic Orthodox churches
variation in liturgies across Eastern Empire
Byzantine musical practices → Western chant through classification of repertory into eight modes/melody types and several hymns borrowed by West in 6 and 9c
music consisted of a single melodic line (monophony)
vocal melody was linked to rhythm and meter of text
music was improvised according to convention (not notated)
philosophical connections to nature, order, and thought
scientifically based acoustical theory (Greek)
scales used tetrachords (Greek)
developed musical terminology (Greek)
many of these hereditary elements were common among other cultures in the ancient world
transferred through Christian Church and writing
western medieval music
sacred repertory (plainchant/Gregorian)
ceremonial use; communal liturgy, or public worship
musical prayer or praise
secular monody
courtly and elite repertory
popular and traditional repertory
entertainment and emotion
often improvised
all monophonic, originated in oral culture, aural
christianity sprang from jewish roots → westward
stable texts and fluid repertoire
classified into church modes based on boethius
theorists and church teachers created medieval musical theory
newly invented sightsinging
secular monody included liturgical dramas and epic/lyric songs
troubadour and trouvere songs based in french dialect
sensual subject, coded language, coterie audience
chant/liturgy
plainchant based on ritual
simple recitation to elaborate melody; dependent on function or singer, which is dependent by position in the liturgy
liturgy: sacred worship service; texts and rites needed to glorify god and the saints, teach the gospels, and exhort worship
yearly cycle of reading from bible, weekly from psalms
office and mass
office → divine office → canonical hours: 8 prayer services observed by religious community
monastery or convent structure; prayers, recitation, songs
psalms featuring an antiphon, sung chants, lessons with responsories, hymns, canticles, prayers
Matin and Vesper
mass: ritualistic commemoration of last supper in addition to readings and prayers
focal point of medieval religious life
source of instruction for the mass; inspiring and evoking awe
new antiphon through the year for each psalm changing based on time in calendar
antiphonal singing: “sounding against”
alternating choirs; two choirs or small and full choir
imitates ancient Syrian models
antiphon repeated after every verse; eventually, only opening sung before psalm and antiphon performed after
antiphons most populated in chant types
most use same melody with few variations
syllabic or slight florid; intended to be sung by groups
stepwise melodic movement, simple rhythm, limited range
mostly sung responsorially; office responsories with full/partial repetition
chants of the mass proper
antiphonal and responsorial psalmody
introit and communion: antiphonal chants
introit was initially full psalm and antiphon, but is now shortened into the original antiphon, a single psalm, doxology with elaborate psalm tone, and repeated antiphon
communion: ends mass as counterpoint to introit; short chant with one scrriptural verse
most developed chants: gradual and alleluia
gradual: carries gospel from altar to lectern in procession
came to frankish churches from evolved forms in rome
certain recurring melismatic formulas: intonations, internal cadences, terminations
some melodies entirely consist of formulas; based on oral/memorized notation
alleluia: respond text is alleluia with a melisma effusive(jubilus)
soloist/solo group sings alleluia up to asterisk; chorus repeats and continues to jubilus
soloist sings psalm verse, chorus joins on last phrase
repeat alleluia
carefully planned/composed; musical rhymee
created through middle ages
created the sequence and new important forms
both florid with similar structures
occurs at contemplative moments without ritual action
responsorial: alternate between choir and soloist
one psalm verse with an elaborate melody accompanying or a respond frame (separate melody and text)
offertory: as melismatic as gradual; only includes response
performed during offering with choral response and 2-3 soloist ornate verses
mass ordinary started as simple syllabic melodies and later replaced by developed ornate settings for choral works
syllabic style kept in gloria and credo (longest texts)
kyrie, sanctus, and agnus dei have 3-part sectional repeating texts which frame identical sections; threefold repetition
kyrie: antiphonal half-choir performances
extend final kyrie via an additional phrase to join together choir for eleison
antiphons composed for new feasts as well as non-psalmodic tones for processions and special occasions
marian antiphons are independent composition from later date
expanded chant via tropes and sequences
tropes”: expansion of chants via:
- adding new words/music before and between chant/phrases
- most common; used with introits
- extending melismas or adding melismas to the melody
- adding text to existing melismas
tropes increased and enlarged solemnity of chant and increased creativity
added a gloss that interpreted chant for the occasion
composition flourished in monasteries in 10/11c; tuotilo at saint gall
eventually banned by council of trent 1545-1563 to standardize liturgy
sequences: followed alleluias; variations of tropes that became independent compositions
notker balbulus; written under long melismas as text syllables
10 to 13c; imitated in secular genres later
banned by council of trent
five surviving sequences used in liturgy; dies irae for requiem and victimqe paschali laudes in easter
syllabic and arranged in couplets; second line repeats first line’s melody
liturgical drama: originated via troping
performed on holy days by the altar
quem quaeritis in sepulchro: 10thc dialogue that preceded the introit for easter mass
sung in responsorial and acted out
quem queritis in presepe: christmas trope
play of daniel, beuavis, 13thc
play of herod, fleury
staged with clergy performance/production
hildegard of bingen: nonliturgical and sacred music drama named ordo virtutum
82 songs composed both melodies and poetic verse
morality play with allegorical characters: prophets, virtues, happy/unhappy/penitent soul, devil, etc.
all characters sing in plainchant; devil only speaks – separation from god
reputed for direct communication with god; claim of divine inspiration
rhine region of germany, 1098–1179
benedictine monastery of disibodenberg; prioress of convent in 1136
famed for prophecies; scivias and books on science and healing
medieval music theory/practice
best reflected via treatises during charlemagne and late middle ages vs. speculation in earlier writings
established eight modes or toni/tones; developed into 11th century
sequence of tones and semitones in a diatonic octave based on a finalis, usually being the last note in the melody
identified via numbers and grouped in pairs; authentic and collateral/plagal modees
pairs shared same finals (bracketed whole notes in modern notation) but had different ranges; authentic rose above final, plagal below
analogous to white-key octave scales on a modern keyboard from defg vs. fourth lower plagals
not absolute pitches, but convenient ways to distinguish interval patterns unique to each pair of modes
second characteristic tone: tenor/reciting tone, like the psalm tones
tenor placement depended on ranges of modes
greek names for church modes
not conforming to modal theory
sightsinging: guido of arezzo
ut re mi fa sol la syllables
hexachords
beginning on CGF; solmization
semitone falls between third and fourth steps, and other steps are whole tones
do for ut and ti above la in english solfeggio
guidonian hand by followers; intervals sung while pointing to different joints on an open left hand, with each joint standing for twenty notes; other notes were “outside the hand”
early musical notation developed
note symbols/neumes placed above text at varying heights to indicate relative size and direction
changed to scratching horizontal line corresponding to note and orienting neumes around line
guido 11c: arrange lines and spaces to form modern staff
freed from need for oral transmission
medieval secular monody
oldest written secular text is with Latin text
goliard songs from 11th and 12thc
composed by students/clerics; libertine, scurrilous, satirical workers
preserved in manuscript collections
wine, women, and satire
early manifestations of secular literacy before mass transcription of vernacular languages
work songs, dance songs, lullabies, laments, chansons de geste, praise songs, love songs/court songs lost from middle ages
jongleurs and minstrels sung secular songs
itinerants/servants to lords
jongleurs: traveled alone or in small groups performing for money
social outcasts denied law and sacraments
minstrels in 11c organized into brotherhoods, then musician guilds (ala conservatories)
troubadours and trobairitz: poet-composers in 12c in southern france
provencal; langue d’oc/occitan
trouveres were equivalent in northern france
theory: troubadours took inspiration from arabic love poetry spread in moorish spain while trouveres spoke langue d’oil, medieval french dialect leading to modern french; troubadour inspiration then spread northward
no well-defined group; varied between castle/nobility, courts, craftsmen and jongleurs in aristocratic circles
sang songs by self or gave performances to minstrels
preserved in chansonnier songbooks; 2,600 survive; ⅒th with melodies
⅔ of 2100 trouvere poems have music
none others with large repertoire survived
varied/ingenue structures; simple, dramatic, miming and dancing
dance songs included refrain sung by a chorus
refrain: line or 2 lines of poetry which returns across stanzas with unique music
troubadours wrote complaints on love, politics and morality, stories, and debates/arguments on esoteric chivalric/courtly love
particular genres: alba (dawn song), canso (love song), and tenson (debate song)
occitan old songs openly sensual or hid via fine amour (refined love/coded language); lofty and unattainable image
courtly example: Can vei la lauzeta mover, Bernart de Ventadorn
typical text was strophic, syllabic with short melismas, opportunity for improvised ornamentation/variation
narrow range; sixth to an octave
finals on CDF; coherence amongst troubadour texts
no particular rhythm known; free/unmeasured or long-short based on inflection were possible; now often transcribed like plainchant, neutral without bars
poetic lines received unique melodic phrases and formed one whole melody/one whole stanza
other texts included AAB free style
modified phrases with repetition with echoes of earlier phrases
A chantar by Comtessa Beatriz de Día; ababcdb 4 melodic phrases
troubadours were model for German knightly poet-musicians: Minnesingers
flourished between 12-14c
love was Minne; Minnelieder → love song
abstract love with religious undertones; sober tones
some melodies written in church modes, some in major scales; commonly believed to be common rhythm and triple meter
commonly strophic songs, but organized through melodic phrase repetition
bar poetic form/pattern; aab
melodic phrase A (Stollen) and remainder B (Abgesang) longer and sung once
included depictions of glow/freshness of spring, dawn songs against illicit lovers, Crusade songs
Cantigas de Santa María
collection of 400+ cantigas in Galician-Portugese to honor Virgin Mary; 1270-1290 by King Alfonso el Sabio of Castile and Leon (NW Spain) in 4 illuminated manuscripts
related miracles by the venerated virgin
Non sofre Santa Maria
refrains in each song; sung by responsorial group and soloist singing verses