American Indian Nations from Termination to Restoration, 1953–2006 by Roberta Ulrich. ISBN 978-0-8032-3364-5
- Joe Thomas: “annihilation, assimilation, integration, termination, restoration”; “a series of ‘tions’”
- relocation hand in hand with termination
- post-WW2 equivalent to annihilation and assimilation
- relocation and assimilation in both pre-and postwar tactics → reservation and allotmeent → annihilation through physical causes
- “If they could not be destroyed, they must be turned into docile Christian tillers ofsoil. “And when an Indian learns to comply with one set ofrules and regulations, they are changed so that he is compelled to begin again,”
- 1950: 343k in 2-300 tribes
- Wyanddotte: 1850
- 1917: Cato Sells: “competent” freed from guardianship and “incompetent” more attention
- 1924: blanket citizenship with prohibitions (alcohol)
- 1926: Meriam Survey; calls for assimilation and integration
- 1934 Reorganization Act
- BIA criticized by Indians and Congress
- WW2 Senate Indian Committee → 1943: remove all property from trusteeship and end programs
- Klamath: sell reservation to divide proceeds, encouraged by local attny
- Arthur V. Watkins and Douglas McKay signed bill
- postwar Truman: Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of Government
- 1948 report to free from trusteeship, but advocate for progressive measures for integration
- long-term project, cut expenses, tax rolls for Indians
- offload programs to states and pay fees until taxation
- adequate education and reduce mortality rates
- 1947 stress placed on addressing Indians as citizenships and relation to government and programs; 15/25 bills pertained
- William Zimmerman, assistant comm. of affair: tribes that were presumed removable from supervision immediately
- “termination “reflected the conservative and nationalist mood of the Cold War era that resonated with the ideologies of individualism and capitalism.“”
- 1977 report of termination cited multiple reasons:
- well-off tribes did not need a special r/s to govt
- relieve poverty through integration
- mass disapproval of BIA
- concern over ‘undefined law andd order’
- desire to reclaim land
- “reduce big government”
- other concerns were over growing population followed birth rate increase (“not enough land”) and cost-economic reasoning + economic benefit of tax rolls/taxation
- “tribally owned property saw shades of communism”
- communism replaced fascism as the perceived enemy as an ideology and a country in late 40s–1950s
- 1948 plan to terminate programs → 1949 plans spread for termination of activities → 1950 plan for stepwise transfer of work to other entities
- 1953: House Concurrent Resolution 108: termination
- Watkins “he saw money spent on Indian programs as promoting socialism while the government was fighting communism”
- bullied and manipulated and questioned disagreeing povs
- quic resolution of termination
- Eisenhower term found massive support
- no reasoning in which tribes were moved to taxation and termination; relied on subjective reports and no criteria
- 13000 people in 108 tribes adnd bands had been terminated and relocated: Menominees and Klamaths, Utah tribes (Utes)
- Utes denied return to tribal status
- catch-all bills for 30+ CA tribes and 60 OR tribes (Cow Creek of Umpqua)
- Catawba, SC, Alabama-Coushattas TX, Peorio Ottawwa and Wydanotte OK, Ponca NB (1963)
- relocation to Denver, SF, Chicago, Dallas, Boston, Philadelphia
- “readjustment, withdrawal, relinquishment of supervision, emancipation, release from restrictions, liquidation”